Research in Strength and Performance
type: channel
description: Research in Strength and Performance (ISSN: 3069-0765) is an open access, peer-reviewed journal. The journal encourages authors to submit basic and applied research in strength and conditioning and all aspects of sports performance.
publisher: Pinnacle Science
language: en
publication name: Research in Strength and Performance
issn: 3069-0765
copyright: Copyright, 2025 by the authors. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
items: Palm Cooling Between Sets Reduces Perceived Exertion Without Enhancing Performance During High-Load Deadlifts
items: Trained Runners Need Lower Respiratory Exchange Ratio Criterion During Graded Exercise Tests
items: Acute Effects of Blood Flow Restriction on Blood Lactate Concentration During an Exercise Bout
items: Resistance Training vs. Hormone Replacement Therapy: Can Training Offset Perimenopausal Hormonal Shifts?
items: Does Load Matter? The Effects of Training Load on Injury and Illness in Division I Female Soccer Players
items: Advancements in Running Shoe Technology: The Impact of Carbon Fiber Plates
items: Exploring Implications of Hormonal Influences on Muscle Function and Training Performance
items: The Influence of Aerobic Exercise Training on Adipokine Concentrations in Obese Men
items: Effects of Pre-Run Walk Under Load on Reactive Strength Index, Running Economy, and Performance of Recreationally Competitive, Male Runners
items: Concerns over the Utility of Phase Angle and its Association with Muscle Function
items: Deception of Heart Rate is Unable to Improve Functional Threshold Power in Cyclists
items: Machine Resistance Curve Analysis of Seven Resistance Training Machines
items: The Collegiate Strength and Conditioning Coaches Association (CSCCa) 2023 Salary Survey
items: Does the Protein Concentration of Different Types of Dietary Supplements for Athletes Vary According to Protein Particle Length?
items: Consuming Caffeinated or Non-Caffeinated Energy Shots has No Effect on Mood or Performance
items: The Influence of a Supervised and Unsupervised Strength and Conditioning Program for Elite Adolescent Freestyle Swimmers
items: A Pilot Study of the Effects of Collagen vs. Whey Protein Supplementation on Delayed Onset Muscle Soreness in Healthy Individuals
items: Nutritional Practices Among Professional Indoor and Beach Volleyball Players: A Brief Narrative Review
items: In Deep Water: A Case Study on Kinematics in Deep Water Running
items: Validity of B-Mode Ultrasound for Body Composition Assessment in the Field
items: Test Transferability of 3D-MOT Training on Soccer Specific Parameters
items: The Effects of a Novel Lateral Ankle Strengthening Program in NCAA Division III Football Players
items: Instability Functional Training: Evidence-Based Recommendations for Coaches
items: A Case Study in Upper Body Kinematics of an Elite Axe Thrower Using Sensor Technology
items: Relationships Between Pre-Match Training Load Variables and Matchday Countermovement Jump Height in NCAA DI Women’s Soccer
items: Considerations for the Utilization of Questionnaires in Collegiate Team Environments
items: Minutes Played Should be Used for the Calculation of Session Rating of Perceived Exertion During Matches in NCAA Division I Women’s Soccer
items: Fixture Congestion has Minimal Impact on External Workloads in Collegiate Soccer Players
items: The Effects of Beta-Hydroxy-Beta-Methylbutyrate on Body Composition in Trained MMA Fighters
items: Utilizing the Maximum Workload Range for Practice Periodization

Palm Cooling Between Sets Reduces Perceived Exertion Without Enhancing Performance During High-Load Deadlifts
type: item
description: Introduction: This study investigated the effects of inter-set palm cooling on performance, physiological, and perceptual responses during high-load deadlift exercise. Methods: Twelve resistance-trained males (age: 20.6 ± 1.4 years) completed two randomized, counterbalanced experimental sessions involving repeated sets of hex bar deadlifts at 95% of their estimated 5-RM. During rest intervals, participants either sat passively without a device (no palm cooling; NPC) or held a commercially available palm cooling device (palm cooling; PC). Performance metrics (total volume, bar velocity, power, and force), physiological responses (heart rate, core and skin temperature), and perceptual measures (RPE, affect, thermal comfort, and perceived recovery) were recorded. Results: No significant differences were observed between PC and NPC conditions for performance or physiological outcomes (p>0.05). Although not statistically significant, PC resulted in greater total volume (+15%), partial (concentric-phase) power (+4%), and peak force (+5%). Perceptual responses differed significantly, with PC producing lower RPE (p=0.049), higher affect (p=0.049), and improved thermal comfort (p=0.002), but unexpectedly lower perceived recovery between sets (p=0.001). Conclusions: PC did not significantly enhance performance or physiological recovery during high-load deadlifts but improved perceptual responses, supporting the hypothesis that PC may modulate central sensory feedback during exercise. These findings suggest PC may be especially useful during high-intensity resistance training in hot environments or for athletes sensitive to thermal strain.
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: thermal regulation
  topic: keywords
subject: Resistance training
  topic: keywords
subject: central sensory feedback
  topic: keywords
subject: Resistance training
  topic: subjects
subject: Performance
  topic: subjects
subject: strength athletes
  topic: subjects
subject: Exercise Science
  topic: disciplines
subject: Exercise Physiology
  topic: disciplines
subject: Exercise Training
  topic: disciplines
subject: Strength and Conditioning
  topic: disciplines
creator: Jeff Buxton
creator: Jonny Aloi
creator: Ryan Hersey
creator: Hunter Presgrave
creator: Stewart McClain
creator: Nico Flati
creator: Hayden Gerhart
creator: Philip Prins
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Jeff Buxton, Jonny Aloi, Ryan Hersey, Hunter Presgrave, Stewart McClain, Nico Flati, Hayden Gerhart, Philip Prins https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
date: 2025-10-27
publication date: 2025-10-27
doi: 10.53520/rdsp2025.105161

Trained Runners Need Lower Respiratory Exchange Ratio Criterion During Graded Exercise Tests
type: item
description: Introduction: A respiratory exchange ratio peak (RERpeak) of ≥1.10 is widely utilized as a secondary confirmation marker that maximal effort was achieved and a valid graded exercise tests (GXT) was conducted. However, this threshold may not be appropriate for trained runners. This study characterized National Collegiate Athletics Association Division I (n=30; female=14) cross-country runners’ ability to reach the ≥1.10 criterion with respect to both sex and sampling interval (SI) duration. Methods: Unfiltered RERpeak were determined during the last two minutes of a GXT in sampling intervals of 15-, 30-, and 60-s with strong vocal encouragement. Results: There were no differences between sexes regardless of SI, but whole cohort RERpeak values were statistically significant (p < 0.05) among all SI (mean ± SEM: RERpeak15 = 1.081 ± 0.007; RERpeak30 = 1.073 ± 0.007; RERpeak60 = 1.065 ± 0.007). Overwhelmingly runners failed to reach an RERpeak ≥1.10 for RERpeak15 (63.3%), RERpeak30 (66.7%) and RERpeak60 (70%). V̇O2peak30 and RERpeak30 were not related for female (r = 0.36; p = 0.21) or male (r = -0.07; p = 0.81) runners. Conclusions: Either current RERpeak guidelines are not low enough to prevent mass secondary confirmation marker misclassifications or approximately two-thirds of participants terminated their GXT without giving maximal effort. If the former is believed, an RERpeak30 threshold of ≥ 1.03 would have classified all but one participant as having exerted maximal effort. This may be a more suitable cut-off point to confirm GXT validity in high-training volume, competitive female and male runners with V̇O2peaks ≥ ~50 and 60 ml/kg/min, respectively.
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: VO2max
  topic: keywords
subject: endurance athlete
  topic: keywords
subject: aerobic capacity
  topic: keywords
subject: Adults
  topic: subjects
subject: Runners
  topic: subjects
subject: Exercise
  topic: disciplines
subject: Performance
  topic: disciplines
subject: Conditioning
  topic: disciplines
creator: Lynnsey R. Bowling
creator: Savanna N. Knight
creator: Eric M. Scudamore
creator: Hunter S. Waldman
creator: Veronika Scudamore
creator: Eric K. O'Neal
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Lynnsey R. Bowling, Savanna N. Knight, Eric M. Scudamore, Hunter S. Waldman, Veronika Scudamore, Eric K. O'Neal https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
date: 2025-10-27
publication date: 2025-10-27
doi: 10.53520/rdsp2025.105157

Acute Effects of Blood Flow Restriction on Blood Lactate Concentration During an Exercise Bout
type: item
description: Introduction: Does low-intensity, acute resistance exercise with blood flow restriction (BFR) elicit a similar blood lactate response as high-intensity exercise without BFR? Methods: Participants (N = 12; 22 ± 3 years old) attended three visits. The first visit estimated participants' three-repetition maximum (3-RM) for right knee extension. At visits two and three, participants' blood lactate response was measured using a 1-RM percentage, counter-balancing BFR (37% 1-RM, 60% arterial occlusion pressure (AOP)) and non-BFR conditions (65% 1-RM). Baseline blood pressure and blood lactate were measured before the warm-up. Blood lactate response was measured at immediate post-exercise and two minutes post-exercise. Results: A two-way repeated measures ANOVA found no main effect of treatment (BFR, non-BFR), F(1, 9) = .470, p < .510, but a difference over time, F(2,18) = 23.294, p < .001. Post-hoc analysis with a Bonferroni adjustment indicates that blood lactate concentration increased from baseline to immediate post-exercise (p = .003) and from baseline to two minutes post-exercise (p = .001). Conclusions: Blood lactate concentrations were similar for knee extension with BFR at 60% AOP and 37% 1-RM, and non-BFR at 65% 1-RM groups. However, blood lactate concentration increased from baseline to post-exercise measures while working at 65% of 1-RM with BFR at 60% AOP.
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: knee extensors, rehabilitation, exercise response, isokinetic dynamometer
  topic: keywords
subject: adults
  topic: subjects
subject: exercise
  topic: subjects
subject: performance
  topic: disciplines
subject: Strength
  topic: disciplines
subject: Strength and Conditioning
  topic: disciplines
creator: Foster Dunn
creator: Logan Evans
creator: Hutson Milligan
creator: Wheeler Stoker
creator: Sara Harper
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Foster Dunn, Logan Evans, Hutson Milligan, Wheeler Stoker, Sara Harper https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
date: 2025-10-27
publication date: 2025-10-27
doi: 10.53520/rdsp2025.105159

Resistance Training vs. Hormone Replacement Therapy: Can Training Offset Perimenopausal Hormonal Shifts?
type: item
description: Perimenopause is a hormonally dynamic transition characterized by erratic declines in 17-β-estradiol, leading to a wide array of physiological and psychosocial symptoms that can significantly impact quality of life. While hormone replacement therapy (HRT) is effective for many, it is not a viable option for all due to medical contraindications and potential risks. This commentary explores resistance training (RT) as a non-pharmacological alternative for managing perimenopausal symptoms. RT has demonstrated benefits in mitigating metabolic dysfunction, improving mood and cognitive health, and potentially alleviating vasomotor symptoms through mechanisms that partially mimic estrogen’s effects. Despite these promising outcomes, RT remains underrepresented in perimenopausal research compared to other exercise modalities. Future studies are needed to assess the effectiveness of RT alone and in combination with HRT to better inform evidence-based strategies for improving female health during this critical life stage.
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: Menstrual cycle
  topic: keywords
subject: female physiology
  topic: keywords
subject: Resistance training
  topic: keywords
subject: estrogen
  topic: keywords
subject: perimenopause
  topic: subjects
subject: women
  topic: subjects
subject: middle-age
  topic: subjects
subject: Strength and Conditioning
  topic: disciplines
subject: Exercise Physiology
  topic: disciplines
subject: muscle physiology
  topic: disciplines
creator: Antonella Schwarz
creator: Anna Oelmann
creator: Alyssa Parten
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Dr. Antonella V. Schwarz, Anna L. Oelmann, Dr. Alyssa L. Parten https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
date: 2025-09-14
publication date: 2025-09-14
doi: 10.53520/rdsp2025.105160

Does Load Matter? The Effects of Training Load on Injury and Illness in Division I Female Soccer Players
type: item
description: Introduction: The purpose of this study was to measure and examine the relationship between training load and the occurrence of injury and illness in collegiate women's soccer players during one competitive season. Methods: Collegiate women’s soccer players (n=24, ages 18-22) participated in data collection over one competitive season (13 weeks). Polar Team Pro GPS were used to measure heart rate and training load, while injury and illnesses were recorded and scored by the team athletic trainer. Welch’s ANOVA was used to compare group means of training load across injury and illness groups. Results: Welch’s ANOVA suggested that training load did not show a statistically significant difference in injury/illness outcome means across the groups and no effect was detected, F (2, 732) = 2.996, p = 0.05, η2 = .004. Conclusions: Training load did not have a significant association with the occurrence of injury and illness in collegiate women’s soccer athletes.
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: Exertion
  topic: keywords
subject: Recovery
  topic: keywords
subject: Competitive
  topic: keywords
subject: Training Load
  topic: subjects
subject: Injury
  topic: subjects
subject: Illness
  topic: subjects
subject: Soccer
  topic: subjects
subject: Female Athlete
  topic: subjects
subject: Exercise Science
  topic: disciplines
subject: Sports Nutrition
  topic: disciplines
subject: Athletic Training
  topic: disciplines
creator: Corbit Franks
creator: Lara Barkesdale
creator: Kaitlyn Armstrong
creator: Jangwoo Jo
creator: Tyler Myers
creator: Tom Andre
creator: Melinda Valliant
creator: Lloyd Wade
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Corbit Franks, Lara Barkesdale, Kaitlyn Armstrong, Jangwoo Jo, Tyler Myers, Tom Andre, Melinda W Valliant, Chip Wade https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
date: 2025-07-08
publication date: 2025-07-08
doi: 10.53520/rdsp2025.105149

Advancements in Running Shoe Technology: The Impact of Carbon Fiber Plates
type: item
description: Recent advancements in running shoe technology have led to increased utilization of carbon fiber plates (CFP) in running shoe construction. This review aims to investigate the literature to shed light on the relationship between carbon fiber plate design and running performance, running economy, biomechanics and risk of injury. A literature search was completed, and ten relevant articles were reviewed. The findings suggest that CFPs alter biomechanics of the lower extremity and may enhance running economy under specific conditions. Results remain inconsistent and some studies reported no significant improvements in running economy, metabolic cost or performance. Biomechanical alterations, including changes in plantar pressure distribution and muscle-tendon unit function, indicate potential implications for injury risk. Further research is necessary to investigate the impact of CFP design on running economy, biomechanics, performance and risk of injury.
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: carbon fiber plates, longitudinal bending stiffness, midsole, running performance, running economy, biomechanics
  topic: keywords
subject: Carbon fiber plates
  topic: subjects
subject: Performance
  topic: subjects
subject: running economy
  topic: subjects
subject: runners
  topic: subjects
subject: biomechanics
  topic: disciplines
subject: Exercise Physiology
  topic: disciplines
subject: physical therapy
  topic: disciplines
creator: Kelsy Hill
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Kelsy Hill https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
date: 2025-04-23
publication date: 2025-04-23
doi: 10.53520/rdsp2025.105146

Exploring Implications of Hormonal Influences on Muscle Function and Training Performance
type: item
description: Understanding the impact of menstrual cycle-related hormonal fluctuations on muscle function is critical for optimizing female strength and performance. Estrogen and progesterone influence neuromuscular efficiency, muscle contraction, and recovery, yet research findings remain inconsistent. Estrogen, particularly in the late follicular phase, enhances neuromuscular efficiency, force production, and recovery, while progesterone, dominant in the luteal phase, may contribute to increased fatigue and slower contraction velocities. These physiological variations suggest that periodized training based on menstrual cycle phases could improve strength, power, and recovery outcomes. High-intensity resistance training may be most effective in the follicular phase, whereas lower-intensity or recovery-focused sessions may be beneficial during the luteal phase. However, variability in individual responses highlights the need for personalized training strategies. Future research should incorporate precise hormonal profiling and neuromuscular assessments to refine evidence-based periodization models, ultimately supporting female athletes in maximizing performance and reducing injury risk.
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: Muscle strength
  topic: keywords
subject: Power
  topic: keywords
subject: Female
  topic: keywords
subject: Cycle
  topic: keywords
subject: Strength
  topic: subjects
subject: Female
  topic: subjects
subject: Exercise Physiology
  topic: disciplines
creator: Rebekah Carpenter
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Rebekah Carpenter https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
date: 2025-02-05
publication date: 2025-02-05
doi: 10.53520/rdsp2025.105144

The Influence of Aerobic Exercise Training on Adipokine Concentrations in Obese Men
type: item
description: The rise of obesity and physical inactivity has elicited changes in body composition that negatively influence adipokine concentrations. While literature is limited to the vast majority of adipokines, several have been shown to play key roles in metabolism and inflammatory pathways. As a result, various comorbidities (e.g., hypertension, hypercholesterolemia, osteoporosis, diabetes mellitus, sarcopenia) have become more prevalent in individuals who possess an overabundance of adipose tissue. This may be attributed to the increase of pro-inflammatory adipokines as adipose tissue increases. However, some recent interventions have gained popularity [e.g., resistance training, aerobic exercise training (AET), nutrition] and have been shown to be effective in improving body composition in obese populations. More recently, studies have shown resistance training could be effective at improving pro- and anti-inflammatory adipokine concentrations and regulation (e.g., leptin, adiponectin, omentin-1, visfatin) by altering lean-muscle mass/fat-mass ratio. However, there have only been a few studies assessing how AET could also be effective in managing adipokine concentrations. Therefore, the focus of this review is to build a comprehensive understanding of the benefits of AET’s influence on pro- and anti-inflammatory adipokine concentrations in obese males.
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: Adipokines
  topic: keywords
subject: Aerobic Exercise
  topic: keywords
subject: Obese Males
  topic: keywords
subject: Omentin-1
  topic: keywords
subject: Adiponectin
  topic: keywords
subject: Leptin
  topic: keywords
subject: Obesity
  topic: subjects
subject: Males
  topic: subjects
subject: Exercise Training
  topic: disciplines
subject: Body Composition
  topic: disciplines
creator: Leroy Bolden
creator: Tomas Chapman-Lopez
creator: Dillon Harris
creator: Olivia Russell
creator: Katherine Lee
creator: Mary Pickler
creator: LesLee Funderburk
creator: Andrew Gallucci
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Leroy Bolden, Tomas Chapman-Lopez, Dillon Harris, Olivia Russell, Katherine Lee, Mary Pickler, LesLee Funderburk, Andrew Gallucci https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
date: 2025-04-01
publication date: 2025-04-01
doi: 10.53520/rdsp2025.105143

Effects of Pre-Run Walk Under Load on Reactive Strength Index, Running Economy, and Performance of Recreationally Competitive, Male Runners
type: item
description: Introduction: This study examined the effects of a low-impact external loading warm-up intervention (~25% body mass) on reactive strength index (RSI), running economy (RE), and run to exhaustion (RTE) performance. Methods: Thirteen recreationally competitive, middle-aged (38±11 years) male runners completed a familiarization session and two counterbalanced trials. Experimental trials began with the same 10-min self-selected warm-up followed by a 15-min treadmill walk (4.02 km/h) at multiple grades without (CON) or with a 19.2 kg weighted vest (VEST). Perceived readiness (PRS) was assessed post warm-up. Participants then completed three, 5-minute RE bouts at a fixed velocity of 11.3 km/h, and 80% and 90% of estimated 5-km race pace followed by a RTE. RSI tests were performed in triplicate before and after the VEST or CON walk and between each RE bout. Results: PRS (VEST = 76±14 vs CON = 70±14 mm; p = 0.18), heart rate, VO2, respiratory exchange ratio and metabolic cost did not differ (p > 0.05 at every pace). No treatment effect was found for RSI, but there was an effect for time due to a trend of post warm-up RSI favoring VEST. Finishing times for RTE did not differ (p = 0.69) between CON (510±158 s) and VEST (519±141 s). Conclusions: VEST failed to elicit statistical advantage in RSI, RE, or RTE in recreationally competitive male distance runners. However, examination of individual PRS and immediate post-warm-up RSI outcomes to RTE suggests positive responders are identifiable and may benefit from this novel, low-impact post-activation potentiation enhancement strategy.
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: external loading
  topic: keywords
subject: weight vest
  topic: keywords
subject: running economy
  topic: keywords
subject: running peformance
  topic: keywords
subject: reactive strenth index
  topic: keywords
subject: running
  topic: subjects
subject: running economy
  topic: subjects
subject: post-activation potentiation
  topic: subjects
subject: reactive strength index
  topic: subjects
subject: exercise science
  topic: disciplines
subject: Exercise Physiology
  topic: disciplines
subject: human performance
  topic: disciplines
creator: David Lara
creator: Savanna N. Knight
creator: Lynnsey R. Bowling
creator: Trace A. Dominy
creator: Hunter Waldman
creator: Eric M. Scudamore
creator: Thomas L. Andre
creator: Eric O'Neal
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 David A. Lara, Savanna N. Knight, Lynnsey R. Bowling, Trace Dominy, Hunter S. Waldman, Eric M. Scudamore, Thomas L. Andre, Eric K. O'Neal https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
date: 2025-02-05
publication date: 2025-02-05
doi: 10.53520/rdsp2025.105135

Concerns over the Utility of Phase Angle and its Association with Muscle Function
type: item
description: Introduction: Phase angle (PhA) derived from bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) has been used as an indicator of cellular hydration, muscle function, and nutritional status. Positive relationships between PhA and various measures of muscle function have been reported but it remains unclear whether PhA retains its predictive utility of muscle function, or whether it performs better than fat-free mass (FFM) in the context of muscle function. Methods: This perspective highlights secondary analyses of data collected during a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial that examined indices of recovery with different whey protein supplements after muscle-damaging exercise among resistance-trained adults. Results: Bivariate correlations between phase angle and quadriceps twitch force were positively correlated at baseline, 24-h, and 72-h post-exercise. In linear regression, FFM was shown to account for nearly 44% (partial r = 0.662) of the variance in quadriceps twitch force independent of phase angle at 24-h. A similar pattern emerged at 48-h and 72-h post-exercise Conclusions: Within this framework, these data demonstrate that: 1) PhA exhibits a weaker correlation to quadriceps twitch force compared to FFM and 2) in the context of muscle function, PhA does not provide additional information beyond that of FFM alone. Investigators should consider adjusting for FFM when evaluating the relationship between PhA and muscle function outcomes.
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: bioelectrical impedance analysis
  topic: keywords
subject: strength athletes
  topic: keywords
subject: body composition
  topic: keywords
subject: recovery
  topic: keywords
subject: body composition
  topic: subjects
subject: strength athletes
  topic: subjects
subject: recovery
  topic: subjects
subject: bioelectrical impedance analysis
  topic: subjects
subject: Exercise Physiology
  topic: disciplines
subject: Nutrition
  topic: disciplines
subject: kinesiology
  topic: disciplines
creator: Matthew Joseph Barenie
creator: Albaro Escalera
creator: Hope E. Grange
creator: Zachary J. Schlader
creator: Alyce D. Fly
creator: Timothy D. Mickleborough
creator: Stephen J. Carter
rights: Copyright (c) 2024 Matthew J. Barenie, Albaro Escalera, Hope E. Grange, Zachary J. Schlader, Alyce D. Fly, Timothy D. Mickleborough, Stephen J. Carter https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
date: 2024-06-17
publication date: 2024-06-17
doi: 10.53520/rdsp2024.105123

Deception of Heart Rate is Unable to Improve Functional Threshold Power in Cyclists
type: item
description: Introduction: Studies investigating the effects of deception on endurance performance have been somewhat inconclusive. The purpose of this study was to explore the use of biofeedback deception of heart rate (HR) in an attempt to improve athletic performance. Methods: Thirteen individuals (10 men, mean±SD age 29.4±10.2 years) completed two 20-minute functional threshold power (FTP) cycling tests. In the control (CON) condition, their correct HR was displayed, while in the deception (DEC) condition an incorrect HR was displayed (correct HR – 10 bpm). Paired samples t-tests were used to compare cycling variables such as power output, speed and work between conditions. Actual HR was analyzed using 2 (condition) x 10 (time; every two minutes) repeated-measures ANOVAs. Results: Mean power output in the CON condition was 226.7±69.3 W and 222.6±65.4 W in the DEC condition (p>.05). The total amount of work performed was nearly identical between conditions (CON: 709.2± J, DEC: 709.3± J; p>.05). There were no differences in actual HR between conditions (all p>.05). Conclusions: Biofeedback deception of HR was unable to improve performance. Verbal encouragement may be a moderating variable that allows successful deception to occur. Possible future studies are presented that will allow further testing of this hypothesis.
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: biofeedback
  topic: keywords
subject: cycling
  topic: keywords
subject: performance
  topic: keywords
subject: endurance
  topic: keywords
subject: aerobic
  topic: keywords
subject: Heart rate
  topic: keywords
subject: Heart rate
  topic: keywords
subject: Males
  topic: subjects
subject: Females
  topic: subjects
subject: Exercise Science
  topic: disciplines
subject: Exercise Physiology
  topic: disciplines
subject: testing
  topic: disciplines
subject: Performance
  topic: disciplines
creator: Nicholas Hanson
creator: Sangwoo Lee
rights: Copyright (c) 2024 Nicholas Hanson, Sangwoo Lee https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
date: 2024-06-17
publication date: 2024-06-17
doi: 10.53520/rdsp2024.105120

Machine Resistance Curve Analysis of Seven Resistance Training Machines
type: item
description: Introduction: Resistance training (RT) is not only feasible but also widely recommended across a spectrum of chronic disease contexts as well as for those with functional limitations. Many RT machines incorporate mechanisms that alter the machine’s resistance curve (MRC) in an attempt to match the variable strength of the participant through a resisted ROM (RROM). Several investigations have tested this relationship using weight selections greater than what might be appropriate for targeting low to moderate training intensities. This article presents an analysis of low to moderate RT selections offered by seven RT machines. Methods: An evaluation of the MRCs of seven RT machines was performed. Three leg extension machines, two chest press machines, and two seated row machines were selected for analysis from three fitness centers in Baltimore, MD and Oklahoma City, OK. The method of analysis is described. The acquired force data were normalized and plotted in order to categorize the MRCs of each machine. Results: Four of the seven machines offered more than one MRC based on the weight selected. Conclusions: The selection of resistance on an individual machine might influence targeted factors such as participant effort or achievable RROM.
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: multi-joint machines
  topic: keywords
subject: single joint machines
  topic: keywords
subject: resistance selection
  topic: keywords
subject: Resistance training
  topic: subjects
subject: Resistance selection
  topic: subjects
subject: resistance training machines
  topic: subjects
subject: Strength and Conditioning
  topic: disciplines
subject: Performance
  topic: disciplines
creator: Charles McMillin
creator: Bridget Melton
creator: Nicholas Murray
creator: Chris D'Adamo
rights: Copyright (c) 2024 Charles McMillin, Bridget Melton, Nicholas Murray, Chris D'Adamo https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
date: 2024-04-17
publication date: 2024-04-17
doi: 10.53520/rdsp2024.105118

The Collegiate Strength and Conditioning Coaches Association (CSCCa) 2023 Salary Survey
type: item
description: The Collegiate Strength and Conditioning Coaches Association (CSCCa) surveyed its members of collegiate strength and conditioning coaches to identify potential salary disparities in the field. The survey aimed to help coaches evaluate their roles and improve their competitive salary standing in across athletic departments nationwide. The findings are fundamental for athletic departments to assess their positioning and ensure legal compliance with compensation laws and to adequately pay employees that robustly contribute to student-athlete mental and physical wellbeing. The results highlight the evolving role of strength coaches, extending to nutrition and athlete wellbeing, and informs salary decisions, aligning with market trends. The survey underscores the need for equitable compensation standards and ongoing industry engagement to advance the profession.
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: Wages
  topic: keywords
subject: Pay
  topic: keywords
subject: College
  topic: keywords
subject: Athletics
  topic: keywords
subject: College Coaches
  topic: subjects
subject: strength Coaches
  topic: subjects
subject: Strength and Conditioning
  topic: disciplines
creator: Clare Quebedeaux
creator: Greg Adamson
creator: Jeanne Rankin
creator: John E. Spurlock
creator: Gabriel J. Sanders
creator: Corey A. Peacock
creator: Sandy Abney
rights: Copyright (c) 2024 Clare Quebedeaux, Greg Adamson, Jeanne Rankin, John E. Spurlock, Gabriel J. Sanders, Corey A. Peacock, Sandy Abney https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
date: 2024-01-04
publication date: 2024-01-04
doi: 10.53520/rdsp2024.105106

Does the Protein Concentration of Different Types of Dietary Supplements for Athletes Vary According to Protein Particle Length?
type: item
description: Introduction: Protein microparticles are crucial for their sensory properties and applicability in food production. This study has the objective of correlating protein particle length and content in different sources of protein supplements. Methods: An analytical observational study with protein supplements (n=30) from different sources was carried out to estimate the protein content and the particle length in the samples. Protein content data was obtained via total nitrogen content. The samples were also analyzed for protein particle lengths using the scanning electron microscope. Results: The comparison between the average particle length of each group of protein supplements analyzed has shown significant statistical difference (F=139.6; p<0.001). Whey Protein Isolate showed higher particle length, compared to other supplements (57.7±42.1 µm; p<0.001). However, no evidence of a significant difference in protein concentrations among supplements was detected (F=1.072; p=0.4004). In addition, no evidence of a significant correlation between protein concentration and particle length was observed (R2=0.001; p=0.8476). Conclusions: Although a difference in the protein particle length of different supplements for athletes was found, there is no correlation between protein concentration and particle length in the studied protein supplements from different sources Whey Protein Concentrate, Whey Protein Isolate, Blend Whey Protein, Veggies, Beef and Albumin.
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: Protein Supplements
  topic: keywords
subject: Particle Length
  topic: keywords
subject: Granulometry
  topic: keywords
subject: Nutrition
  topic: disciplines
subject: Performance
  topic: disciplines
subject: Humans
  topic: disciplines
creator: Juliana Vaccaro
creator: Giuseppe Stefani
creator: Leonardo dos Santos
creator: Alessandra Pizzato
rights: Copyright (c) 2024 Juliana Vaccaro, Giuseppe Stefani, Leonardo dos Santos, Alessandra Pizzato https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
date: 2024-01-23
publication date: 2024-01-23
doi: 10.53520/rdsp2024.105104

Consuming Caffeinated or Non-Caffeinated Energy Shots has No Effect on Mood or Performance
type: item
description: Introduction: The purpose of this investigation was to determine the effects of two different energy drinks on mood as well as mental and physical performance. Methods: In a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled investigation, subjects (n=60, 22 male, 38 female) were assigned to a caffeinated energy shot (Alpha Brain), a non-caffeinated energy shot (Ginger Rescue), or a placebo with no caffeine. Subjects were pre-tested on the psychomotor vigilance task (PVT), which is a measure of sustained attention, Profile of Mood States, and handgrip strength. Consequently, they consumed either the Alpha Brain shot, Ginger Rescue shot, or the placebo. One hour post-consumption, the assessments were repeated. Results: There were no between-group differences (p>0.05) for any of the assessments regarding the change score (M±SD): PVT – Alpha Brain -3±15 msec, Ginger Rescue -21±60 msec, Placebo 1±21 msec; Total mood disturbance score – Alpha Brain -7.0±14.5, Ginger Rescue -4.1±11.1, Placebo -0.7±8.5; Peak handgrip – Alpha Brain 0.3±3.5 kg, Ginger Rescue 0.3±4.5 kg, Placebo -0.6±3.1 kg. Conclusions: The acute consumption of an energy shot, regardless of whether it is caffeinated, did not affect mood, handgrip strength, or sustained attention.
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: nootropic, supplement, attention, vigilance
  topic: keywords
subject: Adults
  topic: subjects
subject: Physically Active
  topic: subjects
subject: Strength
  topic: disciplines
subject: Performance
  topic: disciplines
subject: Nutrition
  topic: disciplines
creator: Jose Antonio
creator: Tobin Silver
creator: Peter Byers
creator: Lia Jiannine
rights: Copyright (c) 2024 Jose Antonio, Tobin Silver, Peter Byers, Lia Jiannine https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
date: 2024-01-11
publication date: 2024-01-11
doi: 10.53520/rdsp2024.10599

The Influence of a Supervised and Unsupervised Strength and Conditioning Program for Elite Adolescent Freestyle Swimmers
type: item
description: Introduction: Adolescent high school swimmers, aged 13-16 years, are an athletic population that can benefit from a strength and conditioning (S&C) program which caters for their developmental and sports-specific needs. The aim of this case study was to analyze the adherence to and subsequent effect of a short-term (12-week) combined supervised and unsupervised S&C program in elite adolescent swimmers during a competitive season. Methods: Seven elite adolescent swimmers (4 females, 3 males) completed the study (age: 15.2 ± 0.5 years; mass: 64.5 ± 5.1 kg; stature: 1.76 ± 0.07 m). The participants were required to adhere to one supervised S&C session and two unsupervised S&C sessions per week that were performed on non-consecutive days while maintaining their traditional swimming training schedules. The unsupervised component was delivered digitally with participant feedback monitored. The S&C program consisted of upper- and lower limbs exercises with low loads and low volume as well as bodyweight exercise. Adherence to both programs was measured by attendance with correlational analysis conducted from total S&C program adherence to swim performance. The effect of the S&C training protocol was assessed using performance time pre and post the S&C intervention during the 50-m freestyle swim. Results: The S&C training program intervention resulted in significant improvements in the 50-m freestyle swim (p < 0.001, d = >1). Total adherence to the supervised and unsupervised parts of the S&C program was 88% while adherence to the digital only component was 76%. Although a correlation was observed between total adherence to the combined supervised and unsupervised S&C program (r = 0.8, p = 0.0243) and improved 50 m freestyle swim performance, this was not the case when the unsupervised component was compared to swim time performance (r = 0.4, p = 0.679). Conclusions: This case study demonstrated that a 12-week S&C intervention has a positive effect on elite adolescents’ 50 m…
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: Adolescent swimmers
  topic: keywords
subject: Strength and conditioning.
  topic: keywords
subject: Exercise adherence
  topic: keywords
subject: Swimming
  topic: subjects
subject: Sports
  topic: subjects
subject: Performance
  topic: subjects
subject: Strength and Conditioning
  topic: disciplines
creator: Stuart Evans
creator: Daniel Gahreman
rights: Copyright (c) 2023 Stuart Evans, Daniel Gahreman https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
date: 2023-11-09
publication date: 2023-11-09
doi: 10.53520/rdsp2023.10594

A Pilot Study of the Effects of Collagen vs. Whey Protein Supplementation on Delayed Onset Muscle Soreness in Healthy Individuals
type: item
description: Introduction: Delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS) is a common condition characterized by muscle stiffness, pain, and inflammation following intense or unaccustomed exercise. Despite its prevalence, the underlying mechanisms of DOMS remain unclear. This study aimed to investigate the effects of collagen supplementation on tissue repair and pain associated with DOMS in exercise-trained individuals. Methods: Fourteen exercise-trained men (n=7) and women (n=7) were enrolled in a randomized, counterbalanced, crossover trial. Participants were assigned to either a whey protein group (n=8) or a collagen protein group (n=6). Each participant consumed 40g of their respective protein supplement daily for four consecutive days. Peak soreness was assessed using self-reported ratings and algometer measurements. Statistical analysis included independent samples t-tests and Levene's test for equality of variances. Results: The analysis revealed no significant difference in peak soreness between the whey protein and collagen protein groups at the 24-hour time point (t(12) = 1.33, p = 0.208). Both groups experienced a decrease in peak soreness over the 24-hour period, but the reduction was not statistically different between the groups. No significant differences were observed in other variables measured. Conclusions: These findings suggest that collagen protein supplementation did not significantly reduce peak soreness associated with DOMS compared to whey protein supplementation in exercise-trained individuals. While collagen supplementation has shown potential benefits in tissue repair and joint health, further research is needed to explore its specific effects on DOMS. Larger studies with different dosages and participant populations are warranted to obtain a more comprehensive understanding of collagen's impact on muscle soreness and tissue repair.
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: Delayed Onset muscle soreness
  topic: keywords
subject: soreness
  topic: keywords
subject: collagen
  topic: keywords
subject: supplementation
  topic: keywords
subject: whey protein
  topic: keywords
subject: exercise-trained individuals
  topic: keywords
subject: pain
  topic: keywords
subject: tissue repair
  topic: keywords
subject: Athletes
  topic: subjects
subject: Exercise Physiology
  topic: disciplines
subject: Sport Science
  topic: disciplines
creator: Jose Rojas
creator: Veronica Mekhail
creator: Cassandra evans
creator: Jose Antonio
rights: Copyright (c) 2023 Jose Rojas, Veronica Mekhail, Cassandra evans, Jose Antonio https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
date: 2023-10-27
publication date: 2023-10-27
doi: 10.53520/rdsp2023.10592

Nutritional Practices Among Professional Indoor and Beach Volleyball Players: A Brief Narrative Review
type: item
description: This narrative review explores the under-researched area of nutritional practices and knowledge among professional beach and indoor volleyball players. By reviewing 13 relevant articles, the review delves into the dietary intake, nutrition education, and sports supplement use of indoor and beach volleyball players. The findings underscore a need to understand volleyball players' distinct nutritional requirements. Indoor and beach volleyball players need help meeting recommended carbohydrate and protein intakes. Additionally, further research is warranted to establish the direct influence of supplements on volleyball performance.
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: diet, creatine, supplements, training
  topic: keywords
subject: volleyball
  topic: subjects
subject: athletes
  topic: subjects
subject: sports nutrition
  topic: disciplines
subject: performance
  topic: disciplines
creator: Flavia Pereira
creator: Jose Antonio
rights: Copyright (c) 2023 Flavia Pereira, Jose Antonio https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
date: 2023-10-11
publication date: 2023-10-11
doi: 10.53520/rdsp2023.10587

In Deep Water: A Case Study on Kinematics in Deep Water Running
type: item
description: Introduction: This field-based case study assessed linear accelerations of the torso centre of mass (CoM) and the tibia using two wearable sensors in a triathlete performing 20 minutes of continuous deep water running. Methods: One triathlete (36 years; height; 151 cm; weight; 63 kg) participated in this field-based case study. One wearable sensor (an accelerometer) was located on the lumbar five/sacrum one (L5/S1) spinous process as a proxy for the centre of mass (CoM) and on the midpoint of the right tibia to capture linear acceleration magnitudes. The participant then performed 20 minutes of deep water running that was completed at a self-selected pace. Results: No significant differences (p<0.05) in torso CoM and tibia acceleration magnitudes were detected in 20 minutes of deep water running. Despite this, the magnitude of torso CoM and tibia acceleration, notably in the anteroposterior and vertical directions, increased at the midpoint of the deep water run, possibly indicating the onset of fatigue. Conclusions: This field-based case study suggests that a wearable sensor can reliably detect variations to the torso CoM and tibia by way of linear acceleration magnitudes in 20 minutes of continuous deep water running. Based on these results, it is possible that the increased acceleration observed at the tibia were due to the onset of fatigue. Future investigations with a larger number of participants are needed to further explore the relationship between torso and tibia acceleration and fatigue in deep water running.
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: Deep water running
  topic: keywords
subject: Sensors
  topic: keywords
subject: Center of mass
  topic: keywords
subject: Athletes
  topic: subjects
subject: Strength
  topic: disciplines
subject: Strength and Conditioning
  topic: disciplines
subject: Performance
  topic: disciplines
subject: Fitness
  topic: disciplines
creator: Stuart Evans
creator: Rodrigo Bini
rights: Copyright (c) 2023 Stuart Evans, Rodrigo Bini https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
date: 2023-05-01
publication date: 2023-05-01
doi: 10.53520/rdsp2023.10574

Validity of B-Mode Ultrasound for Body Composition Assessment in the Field
type: item
description: Introduction: Identifying an accurate, user friendly alternative to skinfold calipers may allow for accurate assessment of body composition in more applied settings, such as various training and competition venues. The purpose of our study was to determine the validity of B-mode ultrasound (BMUS) for body composition assessment by comparing this method to values obtained using air displacement plethysmography (ADP). Methods: Twenty-four active runners underwent two forms of body composition assessment during a single lab visit; ADP and BMUS. ADP body density was estimated using an air displacement chamber in combination with measured lung volume. BMUS body density was estimated from measuring the Jackson-Pollock 7 site skinfolds with a portable, app-based ultrasound device to determine subcutaneous fat thickness. Images were analyzed using proprietary software. Body density values for both methods were converted to body fat percentage using the Siri equation. A paired samples t-test was used to compare values obtained from ADP and BMUS. Results: There was no difference between ADP (18.3 ± 7.3%) and BMUS (17.2 ± 7.6%; p = 0.1) for percent body fat. Conclusions: BMUS provides a valid method for assessing body composition when compared to ADP, thus providing a portable, accurate method for assessing body composition in applied settings.
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: Body Fat Percentage
  topic: keywords
subject: Body Density
  topic: keywords
subject: App-Based Ultrasound
  topic: keywords
subject: runners
  topic: subjects
subject: adults
  topic: subjects
subject: Strength and Conditioning
  topic: disciplines
subject: Fitness
  topic: disciplines
subject: Health
  topic: disciplines
creator: Shane Draper
creator: Conner Dearden
creator: Nate Jensen
creator: Brett Holmes
creator: Andrew Creer
rights: Copyright (c) 2023 Shane Draper, Conner Dearden, Nate Jensen, Brett Holmes, Andrew Creer https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
date: 2023-05-07
publication date: 2023-05-07
doi: 10.53520/rdsp2023.10577

Test Transferability of 3D-MOT Training on Soccer Specific Parameters
type: item
description: Introduction: Three-dimensional motion object tracking (3D-MOT) is perceptual-cognitive tool which utilizes executive function to train athletes to ignore distractors and enhance processing speed and peripheral focus. The benefits of perceptual-cognitive training in professional level athletes have recently been investigated in multiple sports such as basketball, soccer, and archery, but conclusive evidence suggesting test transferability of 3D-MOT training is lacking. The purpose of this research was to examine the transferability of perceptual-cognitive training to on-field soccer performance parameters. Methods: NCAA Division I women’s soccer players (n=22) between the ages of 18-25 participated in the study. NeuroTracker, a 3D-MOT device to train athletes executive function and decision making, was utilized to test the athletes. After baseline testing for both groups to determine visual tracking speed (VTS), the experimental group completed 10 3D-MOT training sessions with NeuroTracker over four-weeks. Game performance data, successful action, passing percentage, and short-medium range passing percentage, was collected utilizing Wyscout video analysis software during the 2021 season. Results: The mean VTS for the NeuroTracker training group significantly increased by 0.68 from pre-3D-MOT training to post-3D-MOT training (p<0.001) while the control group increased by 0.12 (p = 0.034). Analysis utilized an ANCOVA and observed no statistical significance for passing accuracy, successful action and short-medium passing accuracy (p > 0.05). However, the average in game passing-accuracy for the experimental group increased over the control group. Conclusions: The effect of test transferability of 3D-MOT training on soccer specific parameters may be present, but causation of test transferability is not present within the current study. Further research is needed to investigate the cause-and-effect relationship of 3D-MOT training on soccer specific parameters while util…
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: Visual Tracking Speed
  topic: keywords
subject: executive function
  topic: keywords
subject: perceptual-cognitive processing
  topic: keywords
subject: task transfer
  topic: keywords
subject: soccer performance
  topic: keywords
subject: Collegiate Athletes
  topic: subjects
subject: Strength
  topic: disciplines
subject: Performance
  topic: disciplines
subject: Strength and Conditioning
  topic: disciplines
creator: Julia Phillips
creator: Micaela Dusseault
creator: Silvio Polly da Costa Valladão
creator: Hannah Nelson
creator: Thomas Andre
rights: Copyright (c) 2023 Julia Phillips, Micaela Dussealt, Silvio Polly da Costa Valladão, Hannah Nelson, Thomas L. Andre https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
date: 2023-04-07
publication date: 2023-04-07
doi: 10.53520/rdsp2023.10566

The Effects of a Novel Lateral Ankle Strengthening Program in NCAA Division III Football Players
type: item
description: Introduction: Lateral ankle sprains (LAS) are among the most reported injuries in college athletics, typically resulting from excessive closed-kinetic chain (CKC) supination. The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of a novel CKC supination-style ankle strengthening program to a traditional ankle strengthening program on common LAS indices. Methods: Thirty NCAA Division III collegiate football players (19.9±1.0yrs., 182.2±6.9cm, 98.8±18.0kg) were randomly assigned to a novel exercise (SUP, n = 16) or traditional exercise group (TRA, n = 14). The SUP group performed dynamic bodyweight exercises with controlled ankle supination while the TRA group performed traditional ankle strengthening exercise using elastic bands and stability exercises 3 times per week for 6 weeks. Right and left ankle inversion (InvR, InvL) and eversion (EvR, EvL) strength (kg), ankle inversion range of motion (romR, romL) (deg.), and figure-8 hop test (fig8R, fig8L) (s) performance were assessed pre- and post-intervention. Results: Both groups showed significant improvements in all outcome measures pre- to post-test (ΔInvR: TRA 4.5±4.3kg, SUP 5.0±4.4kg; ΔIvL: TRA 4.0±3.8kg, SUP 4.8±3.6kg; ΔEvR: TRA 5.7±4.3kg, SUP 4.7±3.3kg; ΔEvL: TRA 4.7±2.9kg, SUP 4.5±2.2kg; ΔromR: TRA 4.5±2.6°, SUP 4.9±3.0°; ΔromL: TRA 4.7±4.5°, SUP 4.6±5.1°; Δfig8R: TRA -0.43±0.20s, SUP -0.37±0.31s; Δfig8L: TRA -0.40±0.22s, SUP -0.34±0.30s; p’s<0.001), with no difference between groups. Conclusions: A bodyweight, supination style ankle training program can improve physical qualities related to LAS to a similar extent as a traditional program, and therefore, could potentially be a viable alternative strategy for reducing LAS in Division III NCAA football players.
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: lower extremity injury
  topic: keywords
subject: dynamic balance
  topic: keywords
subject: athletic injuries
  topic: keywords
creator: Jeff Buxton
creator: CJ Otwell
creator: Jack Petit
creator: Holton Gwaltney
creator: Nikolas Grabiec
creator: Samuel Luithle
creator: Hayden Gerhart
creator: Philip Prins
rights: Copyright (c) 2023 Jeff Buxton, CJ Otwell, Jack Petit, Holton Gwaltney, Nikolas Grabiec, Samuel Luithle, Hayden Gerhart, Philip Prins https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
date: 2023-03-17
publication date: 2023-03-17
doi: 10.53520/rdsp2023.10564

Instability Functional Training: Evidence-Based Recommendations for Coaches
type: item
description: Instability Functional Training (IFT) has been a popular form of program design in personal training certifications, and thus, widely accepted among trainers and coaches when creating programs for their clients. Training philosophies around this exercise style have been plotted in various directions, ranging from mainstream advocacy to vehement opposition. It is common practice for personal trainers to utilize unstable training and blanket all clients into this methodology in specific and non-specific exercise programs. The research does support its viability in clinical rehabilitation settings; however, it may not benefit a healthier population and may even undermine their goals. We ask trainers and coaches to consider their current position on the validity of IFT and to examine the evidence when programming it for the general public whose primary goal is to improve how they look (e.g., lose fat mass and increase lean body mass). Therefore, this article aims to help identify the merit of instability functional training, objectively review the current literature and recommend a practical approach for trainers and coaches when designing general exercise programs for clients with aesthetic goals.
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: muscle hypertrophy, personal trainer, strength training
  topic: keywords
subject: atheltes
  topic: subjects
subject: trained adults
  topic: subjects
subject: Exercise
  topic: disciplines
subject: Strength
  topic: disciplines
subject: Performance
  topic: disciplines
creator: Jay Horn
rights: Copyright (c) 2023 Jay Horn https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
date: 2023-02-06
publication date: 2023-02-06
doi: 10.53520/rdsp2023.10561

A Case Study in Upper Body Kinematics of an Elite Axe Thrower Using Sensor Technology
type: item
description: Introduction: This field-based case study assessed linear accelerations of the scapula and elbow in an elite axe thrower in three different axe throwing techniques using two wearable sensors. Methods: One elite axe thrower (35 years; height 181 cm; weight 92 kg) participated in this case study. One wearable sensor (an accelerometer) was located on the dorsal surface of the upper thorax between the medial borders of the scapula. An additional sensor was located on the medial epicondyle of the right elbow to capture linear acceleration magnitudes. The participant performed three different throwing techniques, namely a one hand underarm throw, a two-handed overhead throw, and a one hand overarm throw for a total of four repetitions. Results: Significant differences in scapula acceleration magnitudes were detected in the three throwing techniques analyzed along with significant differences in all acceleration channels (p < 0.001). In contrast, no significant differences in triaxial acceleration magnitude were observed in the elbow in all throwing techniques (p > 0.50). Conclusions: Magnitudes of scapular acceleration varied significantly depending on the type of throw. In contrast, acceleration magnitudes at the elbow displayed high variability despite a non-significant outcome. A wearable sensor could be a valuable tool to enhance throwing performance.
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: Axe throwing
  topic: keywords
subject: Sensors
  topic: keywords
subject: Axes
  topic: keywords
subject: Wearable Technology
  topic: keywords
subject: Throwers
  topic: subjects
subject: Sports Science
  topic: disciplines
creator: Stuart Evans
creator: Rodrigo Bini
rights: Copyright (c) 2023 Stuart Evans, Rodrigo Bini https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
date: 2023-02-22
publication date: 2023-02-22
doi: 10.53520/rdsp2023.10558

Relationships Between Pre-Match Training Load Variables and Matchday Countermovement Jump Height in NCAA DI Women’s Soccer
type: item
description: Introduction: The purpose of this study was to assess the repeated measures correlations between the sums of training load (TL) variables preceding matchday and matchday countermovement jump (CMJ) height in NCAA Division I (DI) women’s soccer athletes. Methods: A total of 23 female soccer players (20 ± 1.2 years; 1.69 ± 0.06 m) participated in this study. Repeated measures correlations were used to determine the relationships between matchday CMJ height and TL variables. Results: Matchday CMJ height showed very weak to weak negative relationships with the sums of the TL variables for the microcycle preceding the match: sRPE-TL (r = -0.184, p = 0.036), TD (r = -0.229, p = 0.008), TLS (r = -0.192, p = 0.028), HSD (r = -0.229, p = 0.008), ML (r = -0.204, p = 0.020), and number of sprints (r = -0.237, p = 0.006). Conclusions: Although significant negative weak relationships were observed, the results suggest that the sums of TL variables preceding matchday may not be the most reliable indicators of matchday preparedness in collegiate DI women’s soccer. Future research should aim to investigate other strategies to predict matchday readiness in collegiate women’s soccer.
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: Periodization
  topic: keywords
subject: Neuromuscular
  topic: keywords
subject: Fatigue
  topic: keywords
subject: GPS
  topic: keywords
subject: Athletes
  topic: keywords
subject: Athletes
  topic: subjects
subject: Strength
  topic: disciplines
subject: Conditioning
  topic: disciplines
subject: Performance
  topic: disciplines
creator: Silvio Polly da Costa Valladao
creator: Julia Phillips
creator: Adriana Logan
creator: Thomas Andre
rights: Copyright (c) 2023 Silvio Polly da Costa Valladao, Julia Phillips, Adriana Logan, Thomas Andre https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
date: 2023-01-11
publication date: 2023-01-11
doi: 10.53520/rdsp2023.10555

Considerations for the Utilization of Questionnaires in Collegiate Team Environments
type: item
description: Questionnaires are commonplace in team and individual sports as a subjective tool to assess an athlete’s psychological perception and behavioral practices towards their performance and physical preparation. A consistent and systematic approach is required when administering questionnaires to an athlete or group of athletes. Proper questionnaire design and administration methods allow a strength and conditioning coach to effectively analyze the data and make actionable interventions when necessary. There are challenges in sports, especially team environments, which strength and conditioning professionals must maneuver to better help athletes. These challenges include sudden changes in practice or travel, coaching changes, administrative technicalities, athlete cooperation, and many more factors. When challenges arise, questionnaires are useful tool to gauge how an athlete responds to such changes. The purpose of this report is to outline strategies and considerations for strength and conditioning professionals to effectively implement questionnaires in the collegiate environment.
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: Data
  topic: keywords
subject: Tracking
  topic: keywords
subject: Subjective Monitoring
  topic: keywords
subject: Athletes
  topic: subjects
subject: Coaches
  topic: subjects
subject: Performance
  topic: disciplines
subject: Sports
  topic: disciplines
creator: Greg Adamson
creator: Clare Quebedeaux
creator: Tyler Carpenter
creator: Stuart Roche
creator: Travis Kleifgen
creator: Alex Curtis
creator: Makennah J. Mills
rights: Copyright (c) 2022 Greg Adamson, Clare Quebedeaux, Tyler Carpenter, Stuart Roche, Travis Kleifgen, Alex Curtis, Makennah J. Mills https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
date: 2022-09-27
publication date: 2022-09-27
doi: 10.53520/rdsp2022.10546

Minutes Played Should be Used for the Calculation of Session Rating of Perceived Exertion During Matches in NCAA Division I Women’s Soccer
type: item
description: Introduction: Monitoring Training Load in soccer is used to achieve the best individualized performance outcomes and to prevent injuries. However, there is no clear recommendation for which ‘match duration’ should be used in the calculation of match Session Rating of Perceived Exertion Training Load (sRPE-TL) in NCAA DI women’s soccer. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to establish a duration standard to be used in the calculation of sRPE-TL in collegiate NCAA DI women’s soccer matches. A secondary aim was to investigate whether multiple positions require the use of different durations for the calculation of sRPE-TL. Methods: Seventeen athletes (means ± standard deviations: age 20 ± 1.1 yrs., height 170 ± 6.6 cm, weight 64.6 ± 7.0 kg) participated in this study. Repeated measures correlations were used to determine the relationship between the different sRPE-TL calculations and objective variables (e.g., GPS variables and HR-based variable). Data was analyzed using the rmcorr package in R Studio executing R. Alpha was set a-priori at p ≤ 0.05. Results: The s-RPE-TL using the four ‘minutes played’ durations (‘minutes played only’, ‘warm-up added’, ‘halftime added’, and ‘warm-up and halftime added’) were strongly correlated with TLS (r = .773, .776, .789, .786), total distance (r = .825, .813, .811, .798), number of sprints (r = .716, .717, .712, .711), HSD (r = .608, .615, .609, .612), and mechanical load (r = .738, .738, .734, .732). When separated by positions, the correlations between sRPE-TL and objective data were similar across all four ‘minutes played’ durations. Conclusions: Any of the ‘minutes played’ durations should be used to calculate match sRPE-TL values for the entire team. Multiple positions do not require the use of different durations for the calculation of sRPE-TL which facilitates sRPE-TL comparisons across positions.
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: Training Load
  topic: keywords
subject: Collegiate
  topic: keywords
subject: Periodization
  topic: keywords
subject: Female
  topic: keywords
subject: GPS
  topic: keywords
creator: Silvio Polly da Costa Valladao
creator: Jeremy Loenneke
creator: Xin Ye
creator: Corbit Franks
creator: Thomas Andre
rights: Copyright (c) 2022 Silvio Polly da Costa Valladao, Jeremy Loenneke, Xin Ye, Corbit Franks, Thomas Andre https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
date: 2022-10-10
publication date: 2022-10-10
doi: 10.53520/rdsp2022.10545

Fixture Congestion has Minimal Impact on External Workloads in Collegiate Soccer Players
type: item
description: Introduction: Advances in GPS technology have allowed for the measurement of soccer players’ external workloads in competition. While short collegiate seasons with fixture congestion may pose challenges for sustained performance, no study has determined if objective measures of performance are impacted by game congestion in college soccer players. Methods: External workload variables were measured using the Polar Team Pro™ GPS device (n=19 players). Data were normalized by minutes played to account for discrepancies in playing time. Paired samples T-test was used to determine if workloads were different between the first and second games of “double-header” weekends (n=14 games). Results: In second games, sprints were significantly reduced compared to first games (0.49 ± 0.2 vs. 0.41 ± 0.1, p= 0.005), with decelerations tending to be lower (1.58 ± 0.4 vs. 1.43 ± 0.4, p= 0.06). However, there were no differences in total distance (133.3 ± 38.8 m vs. 129 ± 32.2 m, p= 0.54), high speed running (45.1 ± 13.1 vs. 47.7 ± 13.9 m, p= 0.26) and accelerations (1.5 ± 0.4 vs. 1.6 ± 0.4, p= 0.13) respectively. Conclusions: We note a small but significant difference in sprint distance with fixture congestion, despite no reduction in total distance run, high-speed running, or accelerations. These findings are unexpected due to the high demands of match play and limited recovery time between games.
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: Football
  topic: keywords
subject: GPS
  topic: keywords
subject: Performance
  topic: keywords
subject: Athletes
  topic: subjects
subject: Sports Science
  topic: disciplines
subject: Performance
  topic: disciplines
creator: Gary Long
creator: Kelly Freeland
creator: Johnathan Hayes
rights: Copyright (c) 2022 Gary Long, Kelly Freeland, Johnathan Hayes https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
date: 2022-08-31
publication date: 2022-08-31
doi: 10.53520/rdsp2022.10544

The Effects of Beta-Hydroxy-Beta-Methylbutyrate on Body Composition in Trained MMA Fighters
type: item
description: Introduction: Nutrition plays an important role for mixed martial art (MMA) athletes preparing for competition. Additionally, nutritional supplements are widely used by athletes preparing for competition. Among the various nutritional supplements used by MMA athletes, β-hydroxy-β-methylbutyrate (HMB) is one supplement that may have positive effects on body composition during a fight camp. Methods: The current study examined 16 healthy, male professional MMA fighters (29.0±3.5 yrs.; 178.5± 7.8 cm). Participants completed a randomized, double-blinded, two group [HMB versus Placebo (Cellulose)] by two-time point [Pre-, Post-], mixed study. The study consisted of subjects supplementing HMB (3g daily) or placebo in conjunction with MMA training over a 6-week period. Supplementation was consumed after each morning training session and first thing in the morning on non-training days. Body composition was assessed via InBody770® (InBody UK, United Kingdom) for both pre- and post-intervention. Results: There were no significant (p = 0.471) differences between HMB and Placebo (Table 2) following the 6-weeks of training for weight (HMB Pre- 84.6±10.8kg, Post- 84.1±11.6kg; Placebo Pre- 87.9±14.2kg, Post- 87.9±13.5kg). There were also no significant (p = 0.095) differences for skeletal muscle mass (SMM) (HMB Pre- 42.3±5.4kg, Post- 41.8±5.1kg; Placebo Pre- 44.2±9.0kg, Post- 44.6±8.8kg). No significant (p = 0.655) differences existed for fat mass (HMB Pre- 11.3±2.5kg, Post- 11.2±3.8kg; Placebo Pre- 11.0±4.9, Post- 11.2±3.6). Lastly, no differences (p = 0.641) existed for body fat % (HMB Pre- 13.3±2.5%, Post- 13.2±3.4%; Placebo Pre- 12.8±6.4%, Post- 12.3±6.6%). Conclusion: Based on the results, the use of HMB to improve body composition in trained MMA fighters is not supported. There was also no significant difference in skeletal muscle mass during the six weeks.
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: HMB
  topic: keywords
subject: MMA
  topic: keywords
subject: Weight Cut
  topic: keywords
subject: Rapid Weight Loss
  topic: keywords
subject: Lean Body Mass
  topic: keywords
subject: Fighters
  topic: subjects
subject: Athletes
  topic: subjects
subject: MMA
  topic: subjects
subject: Sports
  topic: disciplines
subject: Strength and Conditioning
  topic: disciplines
subject: Performance
  topic: disciplines
creator: Jose Rojas
creator: Tobin Silver
creator: Jose Antonio
creator: Corey Peacock
rights: Copyright (c) 2022 Jose Rojas, Dr. Silver, Dr. Antonio, Dr. Peacock https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
date: 2022-02-28
publication date: 2022-02-28
doi: 10.53520/rdsp2022.10532

Utilizing the Maximum Workload Range for Practice Periodization
type: item
description: PodScholars Research Podcast The maximum workload range (max range) is a concept suggested by Sanders et al.1 regarding a method used to prescribe adequate practice workloads based off wearable technology data. The max range is calculated as follows from game data: Max Range = (Mean Total Distance + 1 St. Dev.) to (Maximum Total Distance) While the example provided utilizes total distance, the max range can be applied to key performance indicators such as high-speed distance, training load, jumps, etc. that are tracked throughout the competitive season in team sports. The max range concept was developed from research that found 12-17% of the time, football athletes, depending on position, accumulated game workloads outside their position’s mean + 1SD. Anecdotally, many coaches and practitioners use simple game averages as a control for ideal practice volumes. Based on previous research, using the game average as control training threshold may result in some high performing athletes being under-conditioned. It is reasonable to suggest that potential compound effects may occur throughout an entire season if athletes are not engaging in rigorous training loads that mimic game-like volumes and intensities. Figure 1. Theoretical football periodization structure for a defensive back using the max range for high intensity training days.
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: Sports
  topic: keywords
subject: Workloads
  topic: keywords
subject: Overtraining
  topic: keywords
subject: Undertraining
  topic: keywords
subject: Training Load
  topic: keywords
subject: Athletes
  topic: subjects
subject: Sport Science
  topic: disciplines
subject: Strength and Conditioning
  topic: disciplines
subject: Exercise Science
  topic: disciplines
creator: Gabriel J. Sanders
creator: Corey A. Peacock
rights: Copyright (c) 2022 Gabriel J. Sanders, Corey A. Peacock https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
date: 2022-01-20
publication date: 2022-01-20
doi: 10.53520/rdsp2022.10533